3.   Theoretical Framework

The objective of this chapter is to strengthen teachers' theoretical knowledge through the topics and approaches, which are essential for the effective teaching and acquisition of the second language in the classroom setting. As illustrated below:

3.1 The Target Group

Knowing the target group is the first step to be successful in the teaching/acquisition of Spanish as a second language. Furthermore, it is the foundation of this curriculum and programs. Cortés (2000), in his work "Guide for the language teacher", states that:

The curriculum covers the entire program, that is, the organization of the entire instructional process, from the analysis of the needs of the target group, the definition of the objectives, the elaboration of the syllabus and the decisions regarding the methodology, to the evaluation of each of the components of said process”. (p.36)

By basing ourselves on this principle and having a broad knowledge of who is the target group, it is easier for educators to define achievable objectives leading the learner to improve their communication skills and competencies, identifying the appropriate content to fulfill their linguistic needs, selecting didactic material appropriate for their development in the target language, establishing an evaluation criteria to demonstrate an accurate data of the student's progress and performance, during and at the end of the learning process.

To identify the target group, it is vital to know all the factors that contribute to the teaching/learning of a second language; for example: the student’s age, ethnicity, academic proficiency level, first language, residential area, linguistic experience, objective for learning the target language, attitude towards the language, if the learning is voluntary or forced, purpose of using the target language, fondness towards the language, and so on. In the event that the target language is a linguistic need for the student, it is crucial to consider the following factors: the geographic area of residency; the level of Spanish spoken in the country of residence; the appropriate topics corresponding to their respective age range; the group of people, places, circumstances, and which means the target language is used.

Recognizing these factors does not mean that, as educators, we need to create a program for each target group, but instead the program could be adjusted and adapted to the learning needs of the students. In other words, the program shows flexibility in its implementation and is always open to necessary modifications with the aim to adopt its content to the target group, fulfilling their linguistic needs.

3.2 Justification of the Curriculum

The curriculum represents the instructive structure of the teaching process of a language. Its purpose is to fulfill the linguistic needs of students by having the necessary characteristics to facilitate the teaching and learning/acquisition of the Spanish language in a short time span with higher results. Therefore, the curriculum is precise, dynamic, motivational, understandable, and straightforward to be easily implemented even by teachers without any pedagogical training in teaching a second language. Taking as a foundation the identification and analysis or study of the target group will assist the language educator to effortlessly select the appropriate content material and didactic material needed from the Spanish Curriculum for the elaboration of a variety of innovative teaching/learning activities and effective criteria for the evaluation of students’ academic performance, etc. As Cortés (2000) states, 

“The curriculum covers the entire program, that is, the organization of the entire instructional process, from the analysis of the needs of the target group, the definition of the objectives, the elaboration of the syllabus and the decisions regarding the methodology, to the evaluation of each of the components of said process.” (p.36)

This provides a clearer idea of ​​where to start and where to end when developing a curriculum to teach Spanish.

After knowing its structure and foundation, it is necessary to consider the importance of the theory for its implementation. This consists in the selection of all the information that will be useful to the teacher for the development of the program, activities and lessons. This includes the Communicative Approach, the Task-Based Approach, the strategies to teach the vocabulary and the information presented by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Furthermore, as the educators move forward towards the implementation of the Spanish Program, the methodological factors cannot be ignored since the program is based on these components. To avoid the Spanish Program being considered as a traditional language program, it was established on a solid foundation of learning which promises success in language acquisition during and at the end of the teaching process. García Santa-Cecilia (1995) states:

The term programming refers to the process of selection and distribution of specific content for a specific group of students and for a specific period of time; the result of this process would be the course program, although this interpretation of the term reflects the vision of the traditional teaching of foreign languages ​​since it is limited to the selection and organization of the contents without considering methodological factors. (p.143)

Lastly, the evaluation stage is where the results of the teaching and learning process are collected; "It should be noted that the evaluation, whatever its type, must refer to the objectives, content and teaching methodology set out in curricular planning" (Sandoles, 2003, p.197). This means that the connection between what is taught and what is evaluated should not be broken or altered, and should always be focused on verifying the improvement of the students in the different skills and learning competencies.

3.3 Learning Competences according to the CEFR

The different learning competencies provided by the CEFR for all the levels of the curriculum (A2, B1 and B2) are presented below in this Spanish Curriculum for Secondary Schools. The levels of the curriculum demonstrate specifically what students will “be able to do” with the target language when completing each level. Section 5.4.2 includes details of what students ‘will be able to do’ in the different learning skills (written comprehension, written expression, oral comprehension and oral expression)

3.3.1 Learning Competencies for Level A2 (Platform Level)

On a global scale for level A2, the CEFR (2002) describes that the learner:

• Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate personal relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment).
• Can communicate while conducting simple and routine tasks that do not require more than simple and direct exchange of information based on familiar and routine activities. 
• Can describe, in simple terms, aspects of his/her background, environment and matters in areas of immediate need. (p.29)

3.3.2 Learning Competences for Level B1 (Threshold)

 On a global scale for level B1, the CEFR (2002) describes that the learner:

• Can understand the main points of clear standard speech input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc.
• Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken.
• Can write simple or coherent text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest.
• Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans (p.26)

3.3.3 Learning Competencies for Level B2 (Advanced)

On a global scale for level B2, the CEFR (2002) describes that the learner:

• Can understand the main ideas of complex text based on concrete and abstract topics and technical discussions in his/her field of specialization.
• Can interact with native speakers with a sufficient degree of fluency, so that communication is effortless on part of the speakers.
• Can produce clear and detailed texts on various topics, as well as defend a point of view on general issues, indicating the pros and cons of the different options.

3.4 Skills-based learning Standards for levels A2, B1 and B2, presented by the CEFR

The following section consists of the learning standards related to each of the language skills at their respective levels. The learning standards are descriptions that correspond to the learning achievements expected by the students. They constitute the common references that the students need to achieve throughout their academic transition. Also, they specify what the students should know, understand, and know how to do. Likewise, the learning standards will help in the selection of the content of the curriculum program and the thematic, functional and grammatical elements based on the students’ linguistic need and the communicative principle (being able to do) whose purpose promotes communicative competence through the “action” on which the program is based.

3.4.1 Skills Learning Standards for Level A2

 Written Comprehension:

• Understands short and simple texts on everyday matters if they contain familiar vocabulary, or related to work.
• Can understand short, simple texts containing the highest frequency vocabulary, including a proportion of shared international vocabulary items.
• Can understand basic types of standard routine letters and faxes (enquiries, orders, letters of confirmation etc.) on familiar topics.
• Can understand short simple personal letters.
• Can find specific, predictable information in simple everyday material such as advertisements, prospectuses, menus, reference lists and timetables.
• Can locate specific information in lists and isolate the information required (e.g. use the ‘Yellow Pages’ to find a service or tradesman).
• Can understand everyday signs and notices in public places such as streets, restaurants, railway stations, and including in the workplaces, such as directions, instructions, and hazard warnings.
• Can identify specific information in simpler written material encountered in letters, brochures and short newspaper articles describing events.
• Can understand regulations, such as the safety regulations, when expressed in a simple level of the language.
• Can understand simple instructions based on how to operate various equipment encountered in everyday life, such as a public telephone.

Written Expression:

• Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences by using simple conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘because’
• Can write about everyday experiences encountered in his/her environment. For example, writing sentences about people, places, a job or study experience.
• Can write very short, basic descriptions of past events, activities and personal experiences.
• Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences about their family, living conditions, educational background, present or most recent employment.
• Can write short and simple imaginary biographies, and simple poems about people.

Oral Comprehension:

• Can understand enough to be able to deal with concrete needs as long as the speech is articulated clearly and slowly. 
• Can understand phrases and expressions related to the content areas of major importance and priority if the speech is clearly and slowly articulated. (For example, basic personal and family information, shopping list, local residential area or geography, and employment).
• Can generally identify the topic of discussion during an oral conversation as long as it is conducted in a slow and clear manner.
• Can understand the main idea of short, clear, and simple messages and announcements.
• Can understand simple directions on how to get/travel from point X to point Y either by public transportation or walking.
• Can understand and extract the essential information from short, recorded passages dealing with predictable daily matters when the information is slowly and clearly stated.

Oral Expression:

• Can give a simple description or an oral presentation about people, living or working conditions, daily routines, personal likes/dislikes, etc. by using a short series of simple phrases and sentences.
• Can tell a story or describe something using a simple list of points.
• Can describe everyday aspects of his/her environment; for example, people, places, a job or a study experience.
• Can give short, basic descriptions of events and activities.
• Can describe scheduled plans and arrangements, habits and routines, past activities, and personal experiences.
• Can use simple descriptive language to make a brief statement about objects, possessions, and comparisons.
• Can explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something.
• Can describe his/her family, living conditions, educational background, present or most recent employment.
• Can describe people, places and possessions in simple terms.
• Can deliver very short, rehearsed announcements about predictable and learnt content that is understandable to listeners, so that they can attentively listen to the information.
• Can give a short, rehearsed presentation based on topics related to daily experiences and to briefly explain motives, reasons or explanations to express one's opinions, future plans, and actions.
• Can answer a limited number of straightforward follow-up questions.
• Can give a short, rehearsed oral presentation on a familiar subject.
• Can answer straightforward follow-up questions if the question is repeated or assistance is provided for the formulation of his/her response. (MCER, 2002, p. 58-70)

3.4.2 Skills Learning Standards for Level B1

Written Comprehension:

• Can read straightforward factual texts on subjects related to his/her field and interest with a satisfactory level of comprehension.
• Can understand the description of events, feelings and wishes in personal letters well enough to correspond regularly with a foreign friend.
• Can find extensive texts in order to locate desired information, and gather information from different parts of a text, or from different texts in order to fulfill a specific task.
• Can find and understand relevant information in everyday material, such as letters, brochures, and short official documents.
• Recognize meaningful ideas from simple newspaper articles on everyday topics.
• Identify the main conclusions in texts of a clearly argumentative nature.
• Recognizes the line of argument in the treatment of the matter presented, although not necessarily in full detail.
• Understand simple, clearly written instructions related to a device.

Written Expression:

• Can write straightforward texts on a range of familiar subjects within his/her field of interest, by linking a series of shorter discrete elements into a linear sequence.
• Can write straightforward, detailed descriptions on a range/series of familiar subjects within his/her field of interest.
• Can write accounts of experiences, describing feelings and reactions in simple connected text.
• Can write a description of an event, a recent trip, real or imagined.
• Can narrate a story.
• Can write short and simple essays on topics of interest.
• Can summarize a report and give his/her opinion about accumulated factual information on familiar B1 routine and non-routine matters within his/her field.
• Can write very short reports in a conventional format with information about common events and the reasons for certain actions.

Oral Comprehension:

• Can understand straightforward factual information and identify both general messages and specific details about common every day or job-related topics, provided speech is clearly articulated in a generally familiar accent.
• Can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure etc., including short narratives.
• Can generally follow the main points of extended discussions around him/her, provided speech is clearly articulated in standard dialect.
• Can understand, broadly speaking, simple and short speeches on everyday topics, provided they are developed with a standard and clear pronunciation.
• Can follow a lecture or talk within his/her own field, provided the subject matter is familiar and the presentation straightforward and clearly structured.
• Can follow, in outline, straightforward short talks on familiar topics provided that these are delivered in clearly articulated standard speech.
• Can understand simple technical information, such as operating instructions for everyday equipment.
• Can follow detailed directions.
• Can understand the information content of the majority of recorded or broadcast audio material on topics of personal interest delivered in clear standard speech.
• Can understand the main points of radio news bulletins and simpler recorded material about familiar subjects delivered relatively slowly and clearly.

Oral Expression:

• Can sustain a straightforward description of a variety of subjects within his/her field of interest with reasonable fluency, presenting it as a linear sequence of points.
• Can give straightforward descriptions on a variety of familiar subjects within his/her field of interest.
• Can relate a straightforward narrative or description as a linear sequence of points with reasonable fluency.
• Can give detailed accounts of experiences, describing feelings and reactions.
• Can relate details of unpredictable occurrences, e.g., an accident.
• Can relate the plot of a book or film and describe his/her reactions.
• Can describe dreams, hopes, and ambitions.
• Can describe events, real or imagined.
• Can narrate a story.
• Can develop an argument well enough to be followed without difficulty for most of the time.
• Can briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions, plans and actions.
• Can make short, rehearsed statements on a relevant topic within their specialty that are clearly intelligible, despite being accompanied by an accent and intonation unmistakably foreign.
• Can give a prepared and straightforward presentation on a familiar topic within his/her field that is clear enough to be followed without difficulty for most of the time, and in which the main points are explained with reasonable precision.
• Can answer follow up questions, which can be repeated if the speech was rapid. (MCER, 2002, p. 62-73)

3.4.3 Skills Learning Standards for Level B2

Written Comprehension:

• Can read with a large degree of independence, adapting to the style and speed of different reading texts and purposes by selectively using appropriate reference sources.
• Can have a broad active reading vocabulary but may experience some difficulty with low frequency idioms.
• Can read correspondence relating to his/her field of interest and readily grasp the essential meaning.
• Can quickly scan through long and complex texts and easily locate relevant details.
• Can quickly identify the content and relevance of news items, articles and reports based on a wide range of professional topics and decide whether the study is worthy for analysis.
• Can obtain information, ideas, and opinions from highly specialized reading sources from within his/her field of specialty or interest. 
• Can understand specialized articles outside his/her field of specialty/interest provided that he/she can occasionally use a dictionary for better interpretation of certain terminology of unfamiliar words.
• Can understand articles and reports concerning contemporary problems whereby the writers adopt particular stances or viewpoints.
• Can understand lengthy, complex instructions based on their field of specialty, including specific details on different conditions and warnings provided that he/she can reread difficult sections.

Written Expression:

• Can write clear, detailed texts based on a variety of topics related to his/her field of interest, synthesizing, and evaluating information and arguments from a number of sources.
• Can write clear and detailed descriptions of real or imaginary events and experiences in clear and structured texts, marking the relationship between ideas and following the established norms of chosen literary genre.
• Can write clear, detailed descriptions on a variety of topics related to his/her field of interest.
• Can write a review of a film, book or play.
• Can write an essay or report that systematically develops an argument, highlighting the significant points and offering relevant supporting detail.
• Can evaluate different ideas or solutions of a problem.
• Can write an essay or report which develops an argument, giving reasons to support or go against a particular point of view and explaining the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
• Can synthesize information and arguments from a number of sources.

Oral Comprehension:

• Can understand standard spoken language, either face-to-face conversations or broadcast, on both familiar and unfamiliar topics, which are normally encountered in one’s personal, social, academic, or vocational life. Only extreme background noise, inadequate discourse structure and/or idiomatic use of the language affect or influence the ability to understand.
• Can understand the main ideas of a linguistically complex speech that deals with both concrete and abstract topics spoken in a standard dialect, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialization.
• Can understand long speech and complex lines of argument provided that the topic is reasonably familiar, and the development of the speech is facilitated with explicit markers.
• Can actively participate in an animated conversation between native speakers.
• Can grasp what is being said with some effort but can find it difficult to participate effectively in a discussion with several native speakers if they do not modify their speech in some way.
• Can understand essential ideas or key information of conferences, talks and reports and other forms of linguistically complex academic and professional presentation.
• Can understand announcements, statements, and messages on concrete and abstract topics, which are spoken in standard dialect and with a normal speed and rhythm.
• Can understand recordings in standard dialect/language that may be encountered in social, professional, or academic life, and identify the speaker’s viewpoints and attitudes, as well as the content of the information.
• Can understand most radio documentaries and other audio recorded or broadcast material delivered in standard dialect or language, and can identify the speaker’s mood, tone etc.

Oral Expression:

• Can give clear and systematically developed descriptions and presentations by adequately highlighting significant points and relevant supporting details.
• Can give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on a wide range of subjects related to his/her field of interest or specialty by expanding and defending his/her supporting ideas with subsidiary points and relevant examples.
• Can give clear and detailed descriptions on a wide range of topics related to his/her field of interest or specialty.
• Can develop an argument systematically by highlighting the appropriate and significant points, and relevant supporting detail.
• Can develop an argument clearly by expanding and supporting his/her points of view at some length with subsidiary points and relevant examples.
• Can construct reasoned lines of argument:
• Can explain a viewpoint on a topic, proposing the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
• Can deliver announcements or statements on general topics with a degree of clarity, fluency and spontaneity which does not cause stress, discomfort, or inconvenience to the listener.
• Can give a clear and systematically developed presentation highlighting significant points and providing relevant supporting details.
• Can spontaneously move away from a prepared text and follow up interesting points suggested by members of the audience, often showing remarkable fluency and ease of expression.
• Can give a prepared presentation giving reasons in support or against a particular point of view and showing the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
• Can respond to a series of supplementary questions with a degree of fluency and spontaneity, which does not place any strain on him/herself or the audience. (MCER, 2002, p. 62-73

3.5 The Selection of the Method to Implement

This section elaborates on the communicative approach and the task-based approach; it also focuses on the evolution of the communicative approach, with the addition of various strategies for teaching vocabulary in the L2 class.

3.5.1 The Communicative Approach

Due to the evolution of different “traditional” methods and approaches for language teaching, an approach was constructed that promised to solve and strengthen methodological problems in language teaching; this is known as the “Communicative Approach”, which is based on the development of communicative competence in the teaching and learning of a language.

According to the Communicative Approach, language teaching is based on several theories such as:

• The Communicative Principle - It teaches that the activities that involve communication promote language acquisition.
• The Task Principle - This induces learners to complete real tasks of our surroundings, promoting language acquisition.
• The Meaning Principle - The learner is induced to carry out activities that promote the authentic and meaningful use of the language. (Zainuddin, 2011, p.72)

  In general terms and according to Zainuddin (2011), the Communicative Approach promotes on:

• Emphasizing meaningful communication in a second language class.
• Requiring the use of varied activities where authentic communication takes place.
• Adapting the principle of “learning by doing”.
• Working in cooperative groups that serve as a vehicle for the acquisition of a language.
• Working with the "information gap" to encourage meaningful communication. (p. 72)

3.5.2 The Task-based Approach

The Task-based Approach has attracted the attention of linguists and language teachers for its communicative objective and pedagogical structure that facilitates the learning of a second language. One of the main elements of the Task-based Approach is that it is directed to the action and the development of the affective factor, which produces active students with a positive attitude towards the target language and towards its culture. In relation to the aforementioned, López and Blanco (2010) consider: “that learning by doing and doing what we are interested in or need energizes the learning process and strengthens its progress better than in any other way” (p. 5).

To learn more about the Task-based Approach, it is necessary to define what a task is. The word “task” can be defined depending on the area in which we operate or based on our profession; for example, to a student,  a task is the work that must be done at home to be presented the following day; to a farmer, it could be to plant an acre of corn…; however, for the language class, a task means “anything that students have to do (or decide to do) in the language classroom to continue the process of learning a language” (Burden and Williams, 1999, p.175- 176). "Any initiative for language learning that is structured, has a concrete objective, appropriate context, a work procedure already specified and a variety of results for those who perform the task" (Breen, 1987: 23).

Expanding on what was said by Breen (1987), a “task” is conceived as:

1. A structured initiative

According to his clarification, Breen is not in favor of executing those vague initiatives that arise in the classroom. Breen considers it pertinent to study these initiatives and order them according to their purpose or need. All ideas are good, but become better when they are ordered.

2. An initiative with a specific objective,

Ideas do not arise randomly; they are always the result of a previous situation or a future objective; which indicates that a specific goal must be set in order to later think about how to achieve that goal; for this reason, Breen advises fostering an initiative focused on what needs to be achieved.

3. An initiative with an appropriate context.

After setting an objective and ordering ideas depending on the objective to be achieved, Breen advises that the context in which the task will be carried out should be considered. In other words, a goal will not be set if the context is strange or it is impossible to achieve. Breen encourages one to be realistic about the learning context and to prepare the task based on it.

4. An initiative with a work procedure already specified.

Although educators often improvise in language class due to unexpected factors, Breen advises on the organization of the work. According to him, when a teacher brings the task to the classroom, everything must be clear regarding what the students are going to do and what they are going to be allowed to decide about the task. This point requires that the language teacher be an organized individual so that he/she can direct the learners towards the final objective (final or main task). On the other hand, Breen does not guarantee that task results will be the same for all students. He speaks about a variety of results that undoubtedly originate from the way each student handles the task, according to their linguistic ability, their experience, their age, their familiarity with the task, among other aspects. (p.23)

Meanwhile, for Giovannini (1999), "task" is:

To propose the execution of a representative activity of those that are usually carried out in the world outside the classroom and that require the use of the language. The execution of this activity thus becomes the purpose of the task, from which all the activities that comprise it are born... In this way they create a context in which all the linguistic forms that are used will acquire their meaning. At the same time, they facilitate the updating of the process of uses equal to those that occur in habitual communication in the world outside the classroom. (p.103)

In his statement, Giovannine alludes that selecting a task is not taking the first one that comes to our mind, but rather analyzing if such task is applicable to the context or if it meets the linguistic needs of the learners. In other words, it's not about taking tasks at random, but rather, as Breen said, they must be purposeful and real to their immediate context. . According to Giovannini, when a habitual task is carried out in which the language is used, the meaning of it emerges in parallel; likewise, it considers that said activity becomes the "task to be carried out" and based on it the other tasks that comprise it are born. These last statements outline the main pillars on which the task-based approach is founded; namely: selecting a habitual activity in which the language is used (task) and creating sub-activities that guarantee the achievement of the task (habitual activity).     

Numan (1989) took the concept of “task” beyond a structured activity aimed at learning a language; he identified it from a communicative perspective defining it as follows:

It is a unit of work in the classroom, which involves the learners in understanding, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language, while their attention is mainly focused on the meaning rather than on the form. (…) It must also have a sense of integrity and totality, being able to be figured out as a communicative act in its own. (p.10)

According to his words, the task is not about the simple fact of carrying out an activity, but one in which the student must understand what he/she is doing. The student must know how to handle the task and achieve the ability to produce results in the target language, and make use of the knowledge acquired during its development. In other words, the learner is going to use the words that he/she learned in that task in order to apply them in another context at a higher level.

From the cognitive point of view, the task-based approach does not only prompt the learner to practice the language in habitual situations, but also, to consciously or unconsciously, perceive the structures of the language, enhancing its form as an effective treatment of its meaning. In this regard, Prabhu (1987) argues that:

Task-based teaching operates on the concept that, while our consciousness is elaborating meaningful content, a part of the mind's subconscious acquires (or recreates as a cognitive structure) some of the structuring embodied in those entities, such as a step in the development of an internal system of rules. (p. 70-71)

However, other authors such as Giovabbini, Martin, Rodriguez and Simón (1996), consider that the wise balance between meaning and the structure could produce a better result in language learning, defining it in the following way: “The activities are the ones that allow the combination of moments and combination of meaning and moments of attention to structure. (…) The tasks are more effective from the learning point of view when they better combine and alternate those moments.” (p.105)

To design good tasks under this approach "It is convenient to sequence the activities well: from the tasks of motivation and familiarization with the topic, to those of training for the production of texts" (Giovannini, A. et al, 1996, p. 105), “Maintaining a balance between the attention paid to meaning and structure, to fluency and correctness, when selecting and sequencing tasks, in such a way that it can  facilitate and one can appreciate correctly both the performance of the task and the progress in language learning” (CEFR, 2001). Here is a list of points that identify a good task, according to Candlin (1987):

• It motivates learners to pay attention to meaning.
• It gives learners the flexibility to solve problems in their own way, using their own strategies and skills.
• It involves the learners, paying special attention to their different personalities and attitudes.
• It poses a challenge but is not overly demanding.
• It increases learners' awareness of the language use process and motivates them to reflect on their own use of it. (p.74)

To prepare a task, it is necessary to scale and sequence them. FUNIBER (Material de la asignatura; El enfoque por tarea) argues that:

The scaling of a task is related to the degree of difficulty involved in a single task; while the sequencing refers to the order that the different tasks will have when carried out in the classroom. The ordering is within a cohesive and manageable sequence for the teacher and the learner. (p. 49)

3.5.3 Teaching Vocabulary.

In a language, there is an extensive number of words with their respective meaning or function; however, “there is only a relatively small number of words that appear very frequently, to the point that the 4000 most frequent words in a language cover 97.5% of a text.” (Santiago, 2000, p.155)

All words are important, but not all are necessary for a second language student to engage in a meaningful conversation in the target language. Considering this concept, “it is evident that the lexicon we must teach is the one used by the majority (FUNIBER, Material de la asignatura: La enseñanza del léxico; pág. 33); since "the main idea is to achieve fluency and naturalness in communication thanks to the acquisition of lexical segments (...) used by natives" (Lewis, 1993, 1997), as taught by the lexical approach. This demonstrates “that just as communicative, grammatical or cultural activities are developed in the language classroom, special emphasis should be placed on treating the vocabulary as a specific objective of the program." (Gómez Molina, 2014, p.1)

The CEFR also emphasizes the importance of the lexicon in the teaching and learning of a language, defining that “the knowledge of the vocabulary of a language and the ability to use it, is made up of lexical elements and grammatical elements'' (CEFR, 2001, p.108). As a confirmation that without these elements, there is no communication whatsoever, British linguist, David Wilkins, advocates that “without grammar, little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkins, 1972).  Likewise, Lewis (1993) makes a clarification in this regard that teaches us to manipulate both elements (lexicon and grammar) efficiently, affirming that: “language consists of the grammaticalization of the lexicon and not lexicalizing the grammar” (p. 51). This indicates that the lexicon appears first in the teaching of a language and, consequently, grammar is interpreted, rather than delving into the grammar for the lexicon to emerge.

When referring to the teaching of the lexicon, questions such as these arise: What is the lexicon that the majority uses? How to select the lexicon? What vocabulary should I teach at each level? How should I teach it? etc. The lexicon to be taught, or the lexicon of the majority, "is a combination of the fundamental vocabulary (the most frequent words in standard Spanish messages) and the available vocabulary (those most common words in thematic areas of Spanish..." (FUNIBER, La enseñanza del léxico, p.40) Among the fundamental vocabulary, adjectives, articles, connectors, adverbs, nouns, conjunctions, prepositions, etc. can be mentioned. Among the available vocabulary, the description of people, animals, places and things, travel experiences, sports, etc. can be mentioned.

In order to select the lexicon to teach, consideration should be taken of whether the lexicon selected will help the student to complete the task that has been assigned or is going to be assigned. Likewise, it is necessary to group it according to its association or semantic field, since "words are not stored in memory, in alphabetical order, or in isolation, but in associative networks'' (Hayas, 2013, p. 355). Taking into account that "the teaching of the lexicon has a purpose that the lexical units pass to the communicative competence of the individual, given the value of vocabulary as a structuring element of thought that is needed for social interaction" (Molina, 1997, p. 71).

Concerning the selection of vocabulary for each level, the descriptors set out by the CEFR assigned for each level will be taken as reference guides that will aid to identify what a student "can do" in each of them. Unlike the selection of vocabulary, to teach  the lexicon, it must be understood that it is not a matter of giving the students a list of words to memorize, but to present it so that the students internalize them quickly and make immediate use of them. As tips to manipulate the teaching of the lexicon, teachers must “work with words in sequences, and not isolated; using different textual genres as input; teaching more about lexicon, not more lexicon; continually recycling vocabulary already seen. Furthermore, when encountering a lexical error, elaborate and develop autonomous learning strategies and teach the lexicon with a communicative objective.” (Cavanillas, 2015)

One of the greatest challenges of a language educator is to find appropriate strategies for students to memorize/internalize the lexicon more quickly. According to Boos (1996) "there are some criteria that allow effective memorization/learning of the lexicon when it is presented in an unusual context or when it offers unusual, absurd, or extraordinary situations instead of ordinary situations" (p. 263) The linguist suggests that an activity to teach the vocabulary should not be so formal since educators should engage  the student so they can enjoy the activity/ies, as he adds:

What is absurd or unreasonable is better memorized and stimulates the student's imagination instead of dealing with situations that belong to a pseudo-reality outlined by textbooks (…) therefore; it could be more beneficial to find contexts that allow better memorization of the vocabulary, considering the role of humor or fantasy, and also the autonomy of the student. (Boos, 1996, p. 26)

 Hayas (2013) also considers that:

Language teaching demands that the prepared activities be creative, in which all possible tools are used to activate the process (...), current language teaching needs creative and effective activities that challenge the intellectual capacities of students, which involve the activation of mechanisms, based on a more entrepreneurial and effective process. (p. 353)

This indicates that when a lesson is prepared to teach the lexicon, both as associated units, semantic field or as prefabricated phrases (lexical approach), it must be implemented through interactive and fun activities so that they stimulate, in our students, the desire to learn the target language. Another issue that is pertinent to consider, with respect to the teaching of the lexicon, is that vocabulary will be taught extensively in the first levels. In the higher levels, vocabulary teaching will be moderate, since it will be learned simultaneously through the development of the different activities.

In conclusion, it is important to emphasize the principal points that were mentioned earlier, which are: to consider that the teaching of the lexicon will be given with a communicative purpose; to take into account that the language consists of the grammaticalization of the lexicon and not lexicalizing the grammar; to consider that there is a fundamental vocabulary (adjectives, connectors ...) and another available (food, fruits, occupations ...); to avoid teaching the lexicon in isolation but rather as combined with other lexical units; to find appropriate strategies to present the lexicon in the language class; and the selection of the lexicon comprises in its association with other lexical units, by its semantic field and pre-structured segments as proposed in  the lexical approach, that the lexicon is taught more frequently at the lower levels; therefore educators should  find adequate ways of teaching  it in the language class.    

3.6 Material Selection

Currently, there are many textbooks designed to teach Spanish as second language or foreign language. Regrettably, some textbooks focus on the study of the language structure (grammatical structure) and others on the usage of the language. Meanwhile, other textbooks claim to be implementing the task-based approach, but the content presented demonstrates otherwise.  

Over time and through the experience that teachers have acquired in teaching Spanish as a second language, It has been proven that many current textbooks do not contain the necessary pedagogical and content knowledge needed for the teaching of Spanish in the classroom. Certainly, these textbooks are unable to comply with the requirements of meeting the linguistic needs of the learners. As stated previously, the textbooks, which are not fully based on the Task Approach, are considered as “a resource for language teaching and not the resource itself”, which means that it will only be used to get some ideas or activities which can be adapted to our reality. However, it would be beneficial for both the educator and learners to have a textbook, which is based on the task-based approach and satisfies the linguistic need of our target group, one that can be implemented in the Spanish class by making the necessary adjustments in its activities if the learning context so requires.

 3.6.1 Evaluating a Program/textbook for teaching a Second Language (SL)  

When evaluating a program or textbook, it is necessary to go beyond considering: if the title is attractive, has beautiful illustrations, is cheap or expensive, has been printed on durable material, is accessible, and if educators consider it good only because it is designed for teaching the Spanish language. Evaluating a program or textbook means considering factors that help in defining whether the program/textbook is effective for teaching a second language in the teaching/learning context.

To select a program and/or textbook for teaching the Spanish language as SL in Belize, it is absolutely important to consider three main factors; namely: the person who evaluates it, the origin of the didactic material, and its content. The evaluator must be a person specialized in teaching Spanish language as a second language or a foreign language and not as a first language (L1 or ML) since the content, method/approach and teaching/learning strategies vary depending on the type of Spanish to be taught. Having an evaluator specialized in the teaching of a second language guarantees the proper selection of the didactic material, since he/she has the necessary knowledge and criteria to select the appropriate and effective program/textbook for teaching Spanish as a second language in Belize's educational system. Otherwise, the evaluator will not be able to differentiate between a synthetic program (which promotes the structure of the language) and an analytical program (which promotes the use of the language), thus selecting and recommending an inappropriate and ineffective one to try to meet the linguistic need of our target group. In other words, the textbook/program would not be according to the reality of the learning context.

On the other hand, it is necessary to consider whether the evaluator has a solid foundation in the different theories on second language teaching, accompanied by extensive experience in this field. In simpler words, the evaluator must have had some experience in the classroom for several years, facilitating the acquisition or learning of a second language. Possessing both characteristics makes the evaluator the appropriate person to critique the program or textbook, guaranteeing substantial results in the teaching and learning process of a SL. However, if the evaluator is knowledgeable of the theory of teaching a second language, but possesses limited teaching experience in the classroom, the results would not be as significant. It is important that the evaluator first experiences the theory to verify the effectiveness in the implementation of the textbook, since the task approach does not work for everyone in the same way. This would allow the evaluator to give an accurate judgment about what he/she evaluates. Similar to  what is presented above and selecting an inappropriate program or textbook that does not meet the linguistic needs of the target group, and is far from the context of learning a second language, is the same as allowing the evaluator to be an individual who has taught a first language (traditional teaching of a synthetic program), but believes he/she has taught a second language (functional teaching of an analytical program); and to complement, not having the theoretical knowledge about the teaching and learning of a SL. In this case, it is obvious that the evaluator will judge the material according to his experience in teaching a (traditional) language. Thus, the evaluator’s recommendation of the program or textbook will not ensure the success in the acquisition or learning of a second language.  

Regarding the program/textbook, it is important to consider some factors that contribute to its correct selection. Some factors to consider are: the country where it comes from, the level to which it is directed, the type of Spanish implemented (L1, L2, FL), and its method or approach.

Currently, there are a large number of textbooks for teaching the Spanish language, but not all of them promise significant results in the acquisition/teaching of a second language, since their content is not in accordance with the reality of the teaching/learning context. Therefore, it is recommended that the evaluator considers the country of origin (country where it was written), in order to analyze the lexicon used in the material. Certainly, this will avoid exposing students to vocabulary and/or expressions, which are inappropriate to the learning context. Learning is most effective when the student is exposed to a vocabulary that he/she hears frequently outside the classroom, and not one that he/she may never use in his/her life. It is important to know the linguistic variables, but it must be moved to a higher level of the teaching/learning process when the learner has developed the capacity to speak the target language.

Additionally, it is essential for the evaluator to consider the level of content intended to be used for teaching Spanish as a second language, since the selected level might be different from the actual level needed.  Quite often, teachers select books inappropriate for the teaching of a second language (L2) in the classroom. For instance, teachers use textbooks intended for teaching Spanish as a first language (L1), the third-grade elementary textbooks for level three high schools, the L1 programs to teach a L2, etc. Even though the selected programs or textbooks may seem to contain the same content material, they do not yield the expected learning outcomes in the teaching and learning of a L2. Therefore, the evaluator should select the recommended and appropriate program/textbook that caters for the learning needs of the target group and adheres to the learning context of the education system.

Furthermore, the teaching method or approach is the most fundamental aspect in the evaluation of the program/textbook. The effectiveness of the program depends on the selected teaching method or approach, which is based on the content material. In the past, many teaching methods and approaches were implemented to try to obtain significant results in teaching/learning of a second language. However, history has proven that the expected results were not obtained. This prompted a continuous search for a more effective teaching method or approach. Fortunately, research has led to the discovery of the communicative approach, which evolved into the task-based approach. The results obtained from the task-based approach generated the teaching and learning of a Spanish curriculum in reference to a L2. Therefore, it is essential for the evaluator to identify whether the program or textbook under analysis is based on the task-based approach. To that end, the following rubric will assist in evaluating a program/textbook for teaching Spanish as a second language.

3.6.1.1 Rubric for the Evaluation of a Spanish program/textbook as L2

Evaluator’s Professional Data

Evaluator's name: ___________________________________________________________

Evaluator's specialization in teaching second languages: __________________________________________________________________________

Years of experience in teaching second languages: __________________________________________________________________________

 Information of the Program/Textbook 

Name of Program/Textbook: ____________________________________________________

Author: _____________________________________________________________________

Date of Publication: ___________________________________________________________

Publisher: __________________________________________________________________

Country of Publication: ________________________________________________________

Level that the author assigns to the material: _________________________________________

Teaching method/approach presented in the material: ___________________________________________________________________________

The Evaluator’s Results

 The level to implement the Program/Textbook: ______________________________________

The level assigned by the evaluator based on the Evaluation: ___________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: The evaluator will assign the level for the material in evaluation. The material needs to be designed in order to teach a second language (L2) or a foreign language (FL) and comply with the descriptors presented in the table below.

Evaluator’s Signature: ______________________

Evaluation Date: __________________________

General Comment of the Evaluator

_______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________

 EVALUATION TABLE

Instruction: Write a check mark (√) on the descriptors that are applicable to the Program /Textbook evaluated.  Comment why the descriptor applies or why not. If necessary, write the page number. 

3.7 Factors that Contribute to Learning.

Planning a curriculum that fulfills the linguistic needs of the target group takes into account the student’s profile for its elaboration; establishes clear and precise objectives based on the learning needs of the target group; presents the most relevant teaching/learning methods, approaches, and strategies for language instruction; develops an effective methodology; selects the appropriate content material; develops recreational activities, and establishes constructive evaluation criteria.  To fully complement and implement efficient second language classes, it is necessary to include specialized knowledge that contributes to the success in language teaching such as: knowing the process of acquisition of a second language, identifying the difference between Language Acquisition and Language Learning, and taking into account the importance of ‘input’, establishing a positive relationship between students and teachers, and student with their classmates. . 

 3.7.1 Acquisition a Second Language

Language Acquisition refers to the concept of acquiring a first language whereby a child simultaneously, naturally, and accurately acquires oral competence in his/her mother tongue -the language spoken at home-. To understand how a language is acquired, it is necessary to understand the anatomy and functions of the human brain. Being it the major internal organ responsible for language acquisition, the brain is the central site where all the acquired vocabulary is stored. Here, the input or information is processed and subsequently sent to the articulatory organs for the production of words, which are used to express a clear meaning or message to the receiver.

According to neurolinguistics, when words are transferred to the brain, through hearing and sight, the Wernicke’s area receives the information and processes it.  At the Wernicke’s area, the decoding and comprehension of the message occurs. The messages are then transmitted to the Broca's area where the words are produced (coding). Next, the coded message arrives at the primary motor cortex, responsible for sending the message to the phono-articulatory organs.

Considering the function of the brain with respect to language, a very prominent linguist and researcher of language acquisition, (Chomsky, 1875), argued that human beings already have, by nature, a grammatical structure in their brain. This is denominated as "universal grammar"; demonstrating that language is innate and that it develops depending on the input the individual receives and his continuous exposure to the language . In simpler words, Chomsky indicated that a child is born with the ability to acquire any language to which he/she is exposed, since language is a vital and innate human capacity developed for the natural need to communicate.

3.7.2 The Importance of Input

It is crucial to consider the kind or quality of input the students are exposed to by educators in the classroom setting. Undoubtedly, the language  that is exposed to the learner will be used in the future to convey a message. Therefore, it is important to note that the students will express themselves in the same way as their educator expresses ideas to them. In other words, if teachers mispronounce the words or   the sentence structure incorrectly, the learners will utilize the same language input they have received.  For this reason, it is necessary to expose students to correct input so that they can utilize the target language correctly and adequately when speaking.

The Natural Principle needs to be considered in the acquisition of a second language. Since, the learner has already developed a linguistic system (ML), which he/she uses as a fundamental reference, the Language Acquisition process will occur in a shorter time span. To acquire the second language, the children will follow the same steps/procedure they went through when they acquired their first language, namely: listening, understanding, internalizing, processing, and producing.  Based on this, the SL teacher must find the appropriate input so that the learners can easily internalize the target language. Furthermore, the students will be able clearly understand and in turn process the information by expressing their thoughts and emotions about the input.

In the Natural Principle, the level or degree of the input it is also considered. During the early childhood years, a child receives simplified input but as he/she grows or matures, the child is exposed to more complex input, as  his/her level of understanding and expression in the mother language increases. The same thing applies with the acquisition of a second language. Exposing learners to a complex or simple input than the level they possess can lead to negative consequences such as abandoning the process of learning the target language altogether.

3.7.3 Learning vs. Acquiring

Is language acquired or learned? This question has created controversy in the field of Language Education. Usually, Language Acquisition and Language Learning are perceived in the same way, but for Krashen, there are clear differences. Krashen defines learning as “a conscious process of grammatical rules'' (Krashen, 1985). This implies that when a person studies the structure of the language, he/she is practically learning without any guarantee of being able to use the language to communicate. On the other hand , the term acquisition may be interpreted as:

An automatic process that develops at the subconscious level due to the need to communicate. For language acquisition, there is no conscious effort on the individual’s part or emphasis on formal aspects of the language, but rather on communicative acts. Thus, for language acquisition to occur a greater interaction of the individual with the target language is necessary. (Krashen, 1885)

The child undergoes a natural process when acquiring their mother language. While speaking, the child is unaware of grammatical structures utilized during the articulation of sentences. However, the child is capable of formulating complex grammatical structures while communicating with peers or people in their environment. The contributor of this natural process is the use of the lexical units acquired during the child’s first years of life.

To acquire a L2 in the same way as the L1

The acquisition of a L2 can be achieved in the same manner as the L1 acquisition. The process needs to occur before a child reaches the stage of puberty (critical period). Researchers have indicated that the critical period for language acquisition is between the ages of 8 to10 years in females and between 10 to 15 years in males. According to Lenneberg (1921), “the brain loses plasticity after puberty, since its special functions become permanent, therefore (…) if language is not learned before this stage (puberty), it will never be part of brain functions.” (p. 1975). Based on this theory, an adult learns and acquires a L2. This signifies that during the first levels of learning, the adult takes the mother tongue as a reference to comprehend a L2 as a conscious process. However, as learning progresses and frequent interactions with the target language occurs, the individual reaches the acquisition stage. Thus, he/she will no longer need to refer to L1 but instead utilize the acquired vocabulary to produce oral statements for the conveying of a message and possess the ability to understand the target language as an unconscious process. For this process to happen, it is necessary to consider both input and output in the teaching and learning of a L2.

.3.7.4 Learning Strategies

"Learning strategies are procedures (set of steps, operations or skills) that a learner uses in a conscious, controlled and intentional way. It is a flexible instrument used to learn meaningfully and solve problems." (Diaz Barriga, Castañeda and Luke, 1986; Gasking and Elliot, 1998). These authors indicate that learning strategies do not appear unpredictably, but rather consciously developed by students. This indicates that the learner pays keen attention to the way he/she learns and observes the new content, implementing possible tactics, strategies or methods to increase his/her learning. According to Oxford and B. Leaver (1996), students can be trained to acquire other ways of learning in which  the training “involves helping the student to get to know himself/herself better, so that he/she can examine and evaluate themselves, to become expert in the use of their strategies that efficiently aid them.” (p. 228). On the other hand, Cohen (1998) considers that:

Cohen (1998) considers that:

The goal of “strategy training” is to explicitly teach students how, when, and why they should use strategies to lessen their efforts when using foreign language. By explicitly teaching students how to develop their personalized strategies, encouraging the child to self-assess and monitor their own learning, it helps in finding techniques or methods to learn the target language more effectively. (p.69)

Working with learning strategies in the classroom helps students to become autonomous in learning a language prompting the learner to continue learning with or without a facilitator. As a result, the learner can identify and recognize their own method of learning. Most importantly, the learner adapts new strategies, which might have worked for others, and discover or create new strategies to strengthen and accelerate the learning of the target language. Learning strategies must be continually addressed in the classroom; either directly (by survey) or indirectly (by observation).

3.7.5 Affective Strategies

Affective strategies indicate the aptitude and attitude that both the teacher and students have towards the target language. These strategies take place in the classroom, from the first to the last day of classes. Furthermore, the affective strategies need to be implemented in each lesson and activity carried out throughout the learning process. Educators should not ignore this important factor, which is used for the teaching of a L2: Motivation, positivity, and dedication towards the target language are the key to effective learning.

The following list consists of the Affective Strategies that needs to be considered by the teacher during the teaching/learning process of a second language.

• The teacher must be motivated in order to motivate his/her students by demonstrating enthusiasm in each activity.
• The teacher must possess a high-level of aptitude and positive attitude towards the language.
• The teacher needs to be sure and confident of his knowledge of the content to be presented. Failing in this area demoralizes the students.
• The teacher should prepare innovative activities that encourage and motivate the students to develop the desire to learn the target language.
• The teacher should create consciousness about the importance of knowing a second language.
• The teacher needs to utilize a variety of stimuli that keep students motivated.
• The teacher needs to have a desire to make progress with students’ learning of a L2, especially those who consider the learning process to be a challenging one. .
• The teacher needs to be flexible in his/her evaluation because being too strict demoralizes students causing them to hate the target language etc.

In respect to the students, I limit myself in providing a list of aptitude and attitude towards learning a L2, being that the students will react according to the teacher's behavior.

3.8 Activities

Activities in the task-based approach, refers to the different final tasks, sub-tasks and post-tasks that will be carried out within the classroom with a linguistic purpose.

For authors like Giovannini (1999), a "task" is:

To propose the execution of a representative activity that is usually carried out in the world outside the classroom and requires the use of the language. The execution of this activity becomes the main purpose of the task, from which all activities are born from ... In this way, they create a context in which all the linguistic forms that are used acquire their meaning. At the same time, they facilitate the updating of the process with the same uses to those that occur in habitual communication in the world outside the classroom.” (p. 103)

Giovannini specifies that tasks are the major activities of the learning process and minor activities or subtasks are derived from them with the purpose of preparing the student to complete a final task. Likewise, he adds that these activities should be focused on the reality of the external world so that students create a better understanding of the meaning of the language. Based on this context, the learners can internalize the structure of the language.

For other authors such as Giovannini, et al. (1996), “activities are those that allow the combination of moments, combination of meaning, and moments of attention to the structure … from the learning point of view, these tasks are effective when combined and alternated to those moments” (p. 105). Indicating that paying attention to the structure helps to advance in the learning of a language, especially if the students have the foundation of L1. It is therefore "convenient to adequately sequence the activities: beginning from the tasks of motivational and familiarization with the topics, to the tasks that provide training for the production of texts" (Giovannini, et al., 1996, p.105).

For Numan (1989), the concept of activity is the following:

A unit of works involves learners in understanding, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language, while their attention is mainly focused on the meaning rather than the structure of the language (…) rightfully, they should also develop a sense of integrity and totality and being able to appear in itself as a communicative act (p. 10)

Burden and Williams (1999) define activities as “anything that students have to do (or decide to do) in the language classroom to continue the process of learning a language” (p. 175-176). Therefore, the activities become the main axis in the teaching of a language since, through them, the students are strengthened in all the skills and learning competences.

For the activities or tasks to be effective, they must be objective, interactive, fun, clear, effective, close to the reality of society, easy to follow, and enrich the lexicon. The various tasks that need to be presented in the program are: introductory tasks with practice and application of vocabulary; comprehension, oral and written expression; and grammatical and cultural elements of learning, assessment, evaluation, and reflection. The main purpose is to prepare the learners to complete the final task.

3.9 The Content

The content plays a very important role in the teaching/learning of a L2 since it determines the limits of the degree of complexity for the level. Additionally, it serves as a guide for the selection of teaching materials and the elaboration of the different activities (tasks) that will be implemented during instruction of the lesson. According to its function, organization or purpose, the content is divided into: Thematic Content, Functional Content, Lexical Content and Grammatical Content.

The Thematic Content represents the list of topics selected for a certain level of teaching, which is based on the linguistic need of the target group and the reality of the external world. In other words, the most common topics are covered in the environment where the teaching will take place. For the selection of thematic content, the educators need to consider the ‘context of learning’: the students’ age, cultural background, purpose of wanting to learn the target language, and the level of Spanish the students possess.  Also, the proper selection and organization of the thematic content needs to be consider because it promises success in the acquisition of a L2. In simpler words, it is not a matter of randomly selecting topics or presenting them in any order. The topics need to be organized in a certain way by connecting each topic in a logical sequence that does not distort the transition of learning.       

The Functional Content refers to the specific descriptors concerning the use of the language. The descriptors are established based on the thematic content, which follow the general descriptors presented by the CEFR. Furthermore, the descriptors are the communicative learning objectives for each subtask. Simultaneously, it represents what students “will be able to do” with the target language after completing the program. Finally, it is the basis for evaluating the progress and performance of the students in the different learning skills during and after the completion of the program, related to the meaning of the language.

The Grammatical Content represents the selection of all the grammar topics for a certain level that assist in completing the final task of the program and whose objective is to strengthen the different communication skills in learning Spanish as L2. This content can be directly presented in the form of vocabulary or through recreational activities; disguising the structure of the language through its meaning. Therefore, when teaching a L2, it is not recommended to pay attention to grammatical definitions or verb conjugations, but rather concentrate in presenting the content in a specific way to allow the students to be unaware that they are studying grammatical content. The educator needs to indirectly teach grammatical structure by integrating it into the task without grouping the words by their grammatical function but into the communication process in the context it is being  used. 

The Lexical Content represents the fundamental vocabulary needed for the learner to develop and complete the different subtasks and final tasks of the program. This content is presented as associated units, semantic fields, and ready-made phrases (as proposed by the lexical approach). Through the lexical content, the degree of lexical knowledge in the target language can be identified upon the completion of the program. Also, with the lexical content, the degree of lexical complexity of the level can be measured and be used to control the vocabulary presented at each teaching level. Presenting a lexical content does not limit the students or the teacher to integrate more vocabulary and phrases in the different activities. In fact, the content is open to be increased in amount when necessary or when the lesson/activity requires it. This depends on the dedication and interest of both the student and the teacher in exceeding the standards established at each level. Thematic content is controllable at lower levels, but for the superior levels, it arises through the development of the activities.

3.10 The Evaluation Criteria

Assessment is one of the most important steps in the learning and acquisition of a language because it contributes to identify the progress and performance for each student involved in the learning process.  Genesee-Upshur (1996) argues that:

For an evaluation to be useful and effective, it requires planning. Assessment preparation should be an integral part of each lesson planning or unit, as well as the general planning at the beginning of the school year. Instruction and evaluation should be considered together to ensure that instruction leads to evaluation, and that the evaluation results can be directed to educational intervention planning. (p. 44-45)

In other words, it is not about selecting isolated topics, or teaching and evaluating without planning. In facts, the program must be well organized by following the steps below:

• Conduct an assessment to identify the language need of the target group.
• Establish the objectives based on the result(s) obtained in the assessment of the needs of the target group.
• Select a content that fulfill the linguistic needs of the target group.
• Develop activities and materials to develop said content.
• Assess the progress and performance of the learning process.
• Analyze the results of the assessment.
• Correct the objectives, content, activities, and materials based on the results of the evaluation if necessary.

In the educational system, there are different types of assessment that are distinguished depending on its purpose. Some examples include:

• The Placement Assessment - is implemented to identify different skill levels and classify students for different teaching levels.
• Informal Assessment - is carried out on a continuous basis in the classroom with the purpose of identifying the skills in which students are weak or strong.
• Formal assessment - is provided to define the student's performance in the learning process.
• Self-assessment - is implemented to recognize and reflect on the learning process, etc.

To carry out an effective placement assessment, it is necessary to know the objectives and contents of the different levels in order to develop clear and precise criteria, based on the four learning skills. This is essential to determine if students have the linguistic ability to enter a particular level. To conduct an effective informal assessment:

First and foremost, it is essential to establish what is intended to be evaluated, since it is impossible to evaluate all the developmental levels of the students. A clear criterion for evaluating students must be established in order not to rely on superficial observations. Finally, it is important to link the informal evaluation that is carried out with the formal evaluation (exams) and the self-evaluation carried out by the students. (Harris and McCann, 1994, p.5)

This type of (informal) evaluation is usually formative and qualitative. It is considered formative because it aims to improve the learning process, either by modifying or changing all activities, teaching materials and teaching/learning strategies that did not work in one or more specific lessons. The evaluation is qualitative because the student’s development in the target language is appreciated. The evaluations are not always graded but reflect what is being acquired and produced by the students. It is utilized to motivate students rather than to judge their progress. Furthermore, it must be implemented in each lesson/activity that the program requires. This type of evaluation, as mentioned by Harris and McCann, becomes a summative form of assessment to assign a grade.

Formal evaluation is generally quantitative since it has standardized criteria and is used to measure student performance in different skills and learning competencies. As a result of this evaluation, it is decided whether the student passes or fails the subject or course. This evaluation is carried out through examinations and is measured by means of a rubric, which contains the criteria, descriptors, and a numerical scale per criterion. It is conducted at the end of each unit or at the end of the program. Harris & McCann (1994), indicates that:

Self-assessment can provide a teacher with useful information about the expectations and needs of each student. It illustrates the students’ problems and concerns, feelings about their progress, and attitudes towards the materials and methods used. The self-assessment reflects the learner’s thoughts concerning the course in general. Self-evaluation is a more direct and efficient way for the teacher to obtain information about the students' needs through an objective questionnaire. For instance, instead of offering a comprehensive diagnostic test to uncover students' areas of weakness, it is much easier to make the direct question: Where do you have the most problems?  (p.63)

Similarly, the teachers can also conduct a self-evaluation, in order to verify if the strategies they used during the instructions are appropriate for the level, or if they are in accordance to their planning scheme.